CITYFÖRSTER, PosadMaxwan and the City of Rotterdam present Carbon-Based Urbanism: a new research report that analyses the CO₂ footprint for four urban types in the domains Dwelling, District, Resident. The report shows that the biggest impact occurs during the usage phase of a neighborhood. Download the study.
Carbon-Based Urbanism positions urbanism as a key lens to reduce CO₂ emissions. While the current discourse in the construction sector largely focuses on individual buildings, this research adopts a more holistic perspective by linking buildings to their users and the lifestyles that unfold in and around them. It addresses this missing link by identifying how the built environment can help reduce emissions beyond the construction sector and support better informed decisions throughout the planning process. Not just how we build and with what materials, but also where and what kind of neighborhoods should be part of the sustainability debate.
Guided by the question, ‘what is the role of urban design in the CO₂ impact of the dwelling, the district and the resident? ‘, the study analyses 12 neighborhood case studies in Rotterdam. These are grouped into four urban types – highly urban, city block, garden city and suburban – and assessed as if newly built. For each case, the annual per-capita footprint is calculated for the Dwelling, the District and the Resident across nine emission categories. This approach extends beyond energy use and material choices to include public space, infrastructure, mobility patterns, car ownership, food and goods consumption, and holiday travel. Statistical analyses test correlations between neighborhood characteristics and emission patterns, revealing which urban conditions are associated with higher or lower emissions.
1/4
Suburban developments are the highest emitters
The four urban types range from dense, mixed-use inner-city areas to lower-density suburban neighborhoods. Distinct living environments are clearly reflected in their carbon footprints. A striking 43% difference is observed between the lowest- and highest-emitting case studies, ranging from 7,127 (garden city) to 10,184 kgCO₂eq per person per year (suburban), with an average of 8,337 kgCO₂eq. Approximately 15% is attributable to the built environment, compared to 85% from lifestyle-related emissions.
After 5 to 8 years tipping point for lifestyle emissions
Emission categories also differ in timing. Embodied emissions from the built environment occur upfront, while lifestyle emissions accumulate over time. The tipping point, when lifestyle emissions equal and exceed embodied emissions, occurs within only 5 to 8 years. At the same time, these emission categories are interrelated: how we build influences the use of that neighborhood (for example through proximity of amenities, public transport services and car ownership and use). The question how we build links to embodied emissions, and where and what we build to lifestyle emissions. In practice, these considerations often arise simultaneously, making a dual understanding essential to Carbon-Based Urbanism.
1/5
The biggest impact occurs in the usage phase
The largest emission categories are holiday travel, diet and goods (‘stuff’), followed by mobility, operational and embodied emissions of the dwelling, car ownership, public space, and infrastructure. Because each category has different drivers, reduction strategies can be targeted accordingly. Although neighborhood characteristics are not always direct causes of CO₂ emissions, statistically significant correlations emerge – particularly between density, functional mix and mobility emissions. Significant correlations are also found between income and consumption-related emissions, as well as with urban-form characteristics. Lifestyle emissions should therefore not only be considered to depend on income only. Rather, the built environment can serve as a relevant lens to consider user emissions as they are related to living environments.
A multidisciplinary effort
Achieving Carbon-Based Urbanism requires a multidisciplinary effort. CO₂ emissions currently play a limited role in development processes. Stronger evidence and a clearer understanding of interdependencies can help shift this approach. Policies such as zoning plans and mobility strategies can create the conditions for Carbon-Based Urbanism through location choices, cross-sector reduction targets, and data-supported sustainability ambitions. Collective goals, coordination between municipalities and developers, and aligned definitions and calculation methods are essential for implementing a consistent and effective Carbon-Based Urbanism approach.
1/5
Launch event January 23rd
On January 23rd, the research report was presented at the launch event in Keilepand in Rotterdam. The launch included contributions of Wout van der Heijden (Kickstad), Mattijs van Ruijven, Wouter Streefkerk and Emiel Arends (Gemeente Rotterdam), Martin Sobota and Valerie Heesakkers (Cityförster), Megan Visscher and Han Dijk (PosadMaxwan), Arjan Harbers (Planbureau voor de Leefomgeving), Halina Veloso e Zárate (TU Delft), Arie Lengkeek (ERA Contour), Maaike Perenboom (Synchroon) and Laetitia Nossek (Dutch Green Building Council). After the launch, the report was handed to Chantal Zeegers (vice mayor for Climate, Construction and Housing, City of Rotterdam), Francesco Veenstra (Chief Government Architect of the Netherlands), and Bianca Seekles (board of directors, TBI Holdings).
